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Nationalism has been seen as the result of bourgeois liberation in the mid- and late nineteenth century, or as the result of processes operating in the eighteenth century, although it undoubtedly received a major impetus from the French Revolution.19 Landscape could become a framework through which ideologies and discourses of nationalism were con- structed and contested through the manipulation of depictions of landscape, or the sacred symbols of nationalism embedded in landscape.20 Images of national landscapes may seem ancient
National landscapes can also be evoked through music, notably in the great burst of nationalistic com- positions of the later Romantic period, perhaps most notably by
Conscious attempts to create an Italian national landscape failed, partly because of a lack of a dominant heroic context like the American frontier on which to focus.
Many systems of assessment, however, have tended to focus on the ecological and scenic character of landscape rather than its historical significance.65 More recently, the Countryside Commission has undertaken a national landscape characteriza- tion exercise, which has balanced and integrated topographic
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